I) Dreaming of the East: America's Early Adventures to China
Shortly after the Revolutionary War ended in September 1783, with the signing of the Treaty of Paris, the young nation of American, in search of opportunity and riches, saw 'Express of China' first set sail from New York on February 22, 1784.The ship sailed to Canton, officially beginning maritime trade between China and the United States. (Painting on the left is from the collection of The Kelton Foundation)
'Empress of China' arriving at Whampoa Anchorage (1980/1999) by Thomas Wesley FreemanHong Kong Maritime Museum
The Pazhou pagoda of Whampoa, as shown in the background, is one of the landmarks that survives in Canton today, and it offers a clue regarding the painting's location and historical context.
'Empress of China' arriving at Whampoa Anchorage (1980/1999) by Thomas Wesley FreemanHong Kong Maritime Museum
In the foreground, there is a traditional sampan on which the Chinese sculler with a ponytail is controlling the paddle. It directs the gaze of the viewers towards the large ship.
'Empress of China' was the first American ship to enter Chinese waters.
'Empress of China' arriving at Whampoa Anchorage (1980/1999) by Thomas Wesley FreemanHong Kong Maritime Museum
'Empress of China' flies two American flags, marking a new chapter in global trade between China and the United States. (From the collection of The Hong Kong Maritime Museum)
Health and Sailing Clearance for 'Empress of China' (1784-01-25) by George ClintonHong Kong Maritime Museum
This Health and Sailing Clearance was handwritten with ink on parchment and executed with the seal of the Governor of New York, George Clinton.
Health and Sailing Clearance for 'Empress of China' (1784-01-25) by George ClintonHong Kong Maritime Museum
It contains a cut paper star floret. The Clearance was signed on January 25, 1784 and delivered to 'Empress of China' on the same day. (From the collection of The Independence Seaport Museum, Philadelphia)
Sea-letters requesting safe passage for the 'Empress of China' (1984-01-25) by George ClintonHong Kong Maritime Museum
Essentially, these letters functioned as passports during times of wars and unrest to protect merchant ships of neutral states from privateers and navies of belligerent ones. The case for 'Empress of China' was no different, especially as it was on a voyage halfway around the world, representing an infant nation. (From the collection of The Independence Seaport Museum, Philadelphia)
Lemon Basket (1820/1875)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
Lemon Basket (1820/1875)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
The two-part dish, like two others at Winterthur, bears a "MADE IN FRANCE" inscription in paint on the underside of the removable basket.
Lemon Basket (1820/1875)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
The base of the example shown here is unmarked and appears to be Chinese in origin. (From the collection of The Winterthur Museum)
Cap Francoise (Hispaniola) in the Caribbean archipelago by Unknown Chinese artistHong Kong Maritime Museum
(From the collection of the Kelton Foundation)
I.II) Voyages Following the First Success
Inspired by the success of Empress of China's first voyage, more American merchants began to invest in long-distance voyages despite the risks. The trade fever also stimulated the growth of capitalism as financiers began selling shares to investors to finance long-distance trade ventures.
Whaling Barque 'Harmony' of Hull (1928) by William John HugginsHong Kong Maritime Museum
The maritime fur trade flourished through the acquiring of furs of sea otters and animals from America's Pacific Northwest Coast, and Alaska. The furs were mostly traded in China in exchange for tea, silks, porcelain, and other Chinese goods, which were then sold in Europe and the U.S. (From the collection of The Kelton Foundation)
Declaration of Independence (1817) by John TrumbullHong Kong Maritime Museum
I.III) From the Boston Tea Party to the United States Declaration of Independence
The Americans had a deep affection for tea. The British monopolized the tea trade and imposed tea taxes on American colonies, causing the relationship between both sides to continue to deteriorate. On December 16, 1773, American colonists boarded three vessels owned by the East India Company and dumped 342 chests of tea into the sea; this political protest came to be known as the Boston Tea Party. Soon after that, destruction of tea successively occurred in other areas including New York and New Jersey, leading to the outbreak of the American War of Independence.
The North American colonial merchants' opposition to the British economic strategy of colonization led to the American War of Independence. In the end, the British had to abandon the colonies, and sign the Treaty of Paris with the Americans. The Americans, confronted with post-war economic depression, adopted overseas trade amongst several solutions to revitalise the economy. The eagerness for trading opportunities and the prospects of wealth from the Far East encouraged American merchants to set off on voyages to China, and so they sailed to distant shores on the other side of the world chasing their dreams.
Reverse Glass Portrait of George Washington (1805) by Unkown Chinese artistHong Kong Maritime Museum
The technique of painting on glass seems to have been introduced to China by the Jesuit priests, especially Father Castiglione, around 1715. The earliest Chinese reverse glass paintings generally consisted of Chinese subject matter and examples of this type have been dated to at least the 1760s.(From the collection of The Kelton Foundation)
Jug (pitcher) with a Portrait of George Washington (1800/1810)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
Close inspection of the image of Washington on the jug indicates that the Chinese artisan who reproduced the printed portrait imitated the cross-hatched shading of the engraving. (From the collection of The Winterthur Museum)
Porcelain Spoon with the Scene of 'Declaration of Independence' (1926)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
The interior side of the spoon has a curious illustration of the Founding Fathers and Declaration of Independence signers gathered around a table. The execution in terms of calligraphy and spelling on the spoon was undoubtedly from a Chinese artist's hand.
Porcelain Spoon with the Scene of 'Declaration of Independence' (1926)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
The thirteen blue stars above the eagle serve as symbols of the thirteen states, representing the liberty and independence of the newly-founded nation. (From the collection of The Hong Kong Maritime Museum)
Pair of Wine Coasters (1835)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
Designed for the bases of wine bottles, this pair of circular coasters feature a laurel pattern in relief on their borders and a husk chain on their bellies.
Bearing the engraved hallmark "Khecheong" on their feet, they were amongst the American-style export silver sets of the early nineteenth century.
Pair of Wine Coasters (1835)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
They belonged to the collection of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. (From the collection of Anthony J. Hardy)
I.IV) A Symbol of Identity: Armorial Porcelain
From the time of the sixteenth century, the act of commissioning porcelain decorated with the family's coat of arms had become a popular social trend in the West. A genre of export porcelain, armorial porcelain was produced by Chinese potters based on patterns offered by foreign traders, blending traditional Chinese craftsmanship with Western decorative styles. (Image on the right is from the collection of Anthony J. Hardy)
Coats of ArmsHong Kong Maritime Museum
Image taken from the exhibition catalogue set, "The Dragon and The Eagle: American Traders in China, a Century of Trade from 1784 to 1900, Vol I"
Small Sauce Tureen and Oval Dish (1784/1785)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
Among most iconic ceramics produced for the American China trade are the objects which are associated with the Society of Cincinnati, which was founded in 1783 as a fraternity of officers who served during the Revolutionary War. (From the collection of The Winterthur Museum)
World Map (1811/1830) by Coloured by thirteen-year-old George FreemanHong Kong Maritime Museum
This world map is a piece of geography homework that was popular in middle schools during the 19th century in North America and UK. The shape of the continents and borders of nations were printed; the rest of the map was left to be colored in by students. (Collection from K.L. Tam, on loan to HKMM)
In this map, we can see the then territory of the United States; the whole region of the Mississippi River was merged and extended to the border of Canada at around forty-two degrees north latitude.
World Map (1811/1830) by Coloured by thirteen-year-old George FreemanHong Kong Maritime Museum
However, California, Arizona, Colorado and the areas which are currently known in the present day as New Mexico, Texas, and other states, were under Spanish control.
II) Treaty Ports: Sino-American Trade and Treaties
Canton was considered a very important region due to its advantages in terms of position, wealth, and elegance.Until the first Opium War ended, all western trade with China was restricted to Canton (present-day Guangzhou). (Painting is from the collection of The Kelton Foundation)
Permission to Export and Notice of Export Taxes (1855)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
Commerce with the West was tightly regulated by the Chinese government, especially under the Canton trade system in effect from the 1750 to the 1840s. This document certified that taxes were paid in full and served as an exit permit. (From the collection of The Baker Library, Harvard Business School)
Pair of Hong Bowls (1780/1785)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
This pair of punch bowls is decorated with a continuous scene of the European and American trading centres, known as Hongs in Cantonese. Punch bowls decoraed with scenes of thirteen Hongs appeared approximately in 1780.
Pair of Hong Bowls (1780/1785)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
In the 18th century, European and American trade with China was carried out in a tightly-controlled environment along a narrow strip beside the Pearl River in Canton. 13 Hongs were located there, each of which served as the combined office, warehouse, and residence for European merchants.
Pair of Hong Bowls (1780/1785)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
The flags depicted on the bowls, representing Danish, French, Austrian Imperial, Sweden, British, and Dutch factories, respectively, without the American flag, suggest their dating. (From the collection of Anthony J. Hardy, on loan to HKMM)
Salver (1847) by Chinese, for export to the American marketHong Kong Maritime Museum
The large rectangular salver has a molded rim with incurved corners. It sits on four cast splayed dragon mask-and-paw feet. The front surface is engraved with a scene of the foreign factories' site at Canton and the American Garden. (From the collection of The Metropolitan Museum of Art)
View from the American Hong, Canton by Unknown artistHong Kong Maritime Museum
This view from the inside the American Hong is unusual since most depictions of the Canton factories are from the perspective of a visitor looking at the enclave from a distance. (From the collection of HSBC Archives)
View of the waterfront at Canton with the paddle steamer 'Spark' (1855) by Tingqua studio (Guan Lianchang (fl. 1840-1870)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
This painting captures a view of the city and foreign factories at Canton, which was a popular subject matter that can be found in trade paintings produced between 18th and 19th centuries. Viewers are presented with a view of the Pearl River towards the foreign factories from the island of Honam.
Chinese coolies (workers) in the foreground load tea onto a chop boat's chests using bamboo carrying poles or just their heads. (From the collection of The Hong Kong Maritime Museum)
Portrait of Howqua II (Wu Bingjian) (1840) by Lamqua (Guan Qiaochang)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
This is an oil portrait of the senior Hong merchant Howqua II (Wu Bingjian) by Lamque.
It is an iconic image, a scene Howqua is seen at waist-length. (From the collection of Frederic D. Grant, Jr.)
Houqua's summer Mandarin garment (1850)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
(From the collection of The Kelton Foundation)
Letter from Houqua to Messers Lorman and Milnor of BaltimoreHong Kong Maritime Museum
The letter is an interesting and rare letter from the most famous Chinese merchant in the early nineteenth century, Houqua (Wu Bingjian). At his death in 1843, Houqua was considered to have been one of the wealthiest men in the world.
This letter shows that Houqua, with the help of the Perkins, was carrying out extensive business ventures on his own account separate from his primary business as a Hong merchant. (From the collection of Edward G. Tiedemann, Jr.)
Portrait of Mowqua (Lu Wenjin) (1828) by George ChinneryHong Kong Maritime Museum
The subject of this painting was Lu Wenjin, known colloquially as "Mowqua", one of the most prosperous Hong merchants. He wears robes indicating his official rank. The Hong merchants did not receive official degrees through regular examination system; instead, they obtained their posts by purchasing them at high prices from regular officials. (From the Collection of HSBC Archives)
Portrait of a Hong Merchant Holding a Snuff Bottle by SpoilumHong Kong Maritime Museum
The Cantonese artist known as Spoilum seems to have been pioneer in the painting of portraits (for Western clients) in oils on canvas - a characteristically Western medium which had little place in traditional Chinese art. (From the collection of Anthony J. Hardy)
Portrait of Stephen Girard (1847) by Alonzo ChappelHong Kong Maritime Museum
Girard was Philadelpia's most famous merchant and philanthropist as well as one of America's earliest millionaires.
Following ventures in West Indian trade, Girard capitalized on the blossoming America-China trade, built a fleet of merchant ships, and participated in the illicit opium trade. (From the collection of The Independence Seaport Museum)
Iron-bound Strongbox (1840/1849)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
Strongboxes were indispensable to the wealthy for the safe transport of their valuables in a time when traveling could be dangerous on the roads and at sea. (From the collection of The Independence Seaport Museum)
Bourdalou (Lady's Urinal) (1811)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
Although it may seem unusual to consumers today, the original owners acquired this bardaloue (lady's urinal) along with a matching coffee and tea service. (From the collection of The Winterthur Museum)
Service (1790/1795) by Chinese, made for the American marketHong Kong Maritime Museum
Decorated in poly-chrome enamel and gold, the service has bands, stars, and spearheads at the rim, as well as central armorial image monogrammed with SHE, SH, HH, MH, and WH, mostly encircled by a husk chain.
Samuel Howell, Jr. was a prominent Philadelphia merchant who was involved in China trade. He used this set, among other sample cups and saucers, to show his customers the patterns available when purchasing a Chinese porcelain service.
Small Dish (1786/1795)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
The central motif on this dish is one of several stylized imitations of the arms of the State of New York, which were commissioned by Governor DeWitt Clinton in 1778.
Liberty is featured on the left, holding a staff topped by a Liberty Cap. Justice, at the right, stands blindfolded and holds up a set of scales. (From the collection of The Winterthur Museum)
Pair of Porcelain Candlesticks (1800/1840)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
The armorial crest on this pair of candlesticks, painted in overglaze polychrome, is adapted from the Great Seal of the United States.
While the American coat of arms shield of the spread-wing eagle clutching arrows (military force) and an olive branch (peace) serve as symbols of the United States, the sun rays encircling the eagle's head symbolize the arms of New York City.
Pair of Porcelain Candlesticks (1800/1840)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
Scattered on the neck and base are traditional patterns of flowers in pink and red, a common motif found on export porcelain for Americans during the late Qing dynasty in the nineteenth century. (From the collection of Anthony J. Hardy, on loan to HKMM)
Painted Shipmodel of the 'Friendship of Salem' (1890)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
This three-masted ship model with a wooden stand, painted in black and white on a green hull, is fully rigged and fitted with a rowboat hanging off the stern and rowboat on the deck.
Painted Shipmodel of the 'Friendship of Salem' (1890)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
It has a figurehead of a Classical female figure holding a wreath and sword, and inscribed across the back of the stern are the words, "FRIENDSHIP OF SALEM". (From the collection of The Hong Kong Maritime Museum)
Photograph of George W. HeardHong Kong Maritime Museum
(From the collection of The Baker Library, Harvard Business School)
George Heard's Pocket Notebook (1859/1880)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
This small, red leather pocket notebook was used by George Heard, during his 1859 voyage from Paris to Hong Kong. In addition to ports he stopped during the course of his journey, Heard listed the clothing and other supplies he would bring to China. (From the collection of The Baker Library, Harvard Business School)
Silk Samples (1850) by Heard Family Business Records, carton 30Hong Kong Maritime Museum
Chinese silk, along with tea and fine porcelain, was one of the products most in demand by Western traders. This document, with original silk samples attached, is an order for silk fabric requested by Augustine Heard & Co., circa 1850. The writer requested a custom order, asking that specific changes in colour and pattern be made to the sample fabrics. (From the collection of The Baker Library, Harvard Business School)
Rent Account Book (1867) by Russell and Co. RecordsHong Kong Maritime Museum
This rent account book records payment for wharfage access made by the American trading firm Russell & Co., probably on the Canton riverfront. (From the collection of The Baker Library, Harvard Business School)
Cleveland-Perkins Marriage Settlement (1838) by Forbes Family Business RecordsHong Kong Maritime Museum
(From the collection of The Baker Library, Harvard Business School)
Fuzhou: Pagoda Anchorage (1865) by Unknown Chinese artistHong Kong Maritime Museum
Although Fuzhou was one of the Treaty Ports designated by the Treaty of Nanjing (1842), the city itself could not be reached by Western ships, which anchored downstream at Mawei, in the channel known as "Pagoda Anchorage".
The pagoda still stands - although no longer n an island - as do some of the buildings from the 1860s.
Fuzhou: Pagoda Anchorage (1865) by Unknown Chinese artistHong Kong Maritime Museum
In the 1860s, Pagoda Anchorage became the starting-point for the "tea races", in which tea-clippers competed to bring home their cargoes supplied from the Bohea tea-growing districts close by. They Brought tea not only to Britain but also to the U.S. and Australia. (From the collection of Anthony J. Hardy)
Hong Kong City and Victoria Harbour (1870/1875) by Unknown Chinese artistHong Kong Maritime Museum
This interesting painting shows the central harbour at the point when Hong Kong was taking off as a port from its slow growing early years.
A close look shows ships from Britain, the USA, France and the Netherlands, as well as a host of Chinese vessels off Western District.
Hong Kong City and Victoria Harbour (1870/1875) by Unknown Chinese artistHong Kong Maritime Museum
The American ship -an auxiliary steam warship- is interesting since it helps us date the painting to early 1870s. The ship is likely to be USS Colorado, the flagship of the US Navy's Asiatic Squadron, formed in 1868 to replace the preceding East Indies Squadron.(From the collection of Anthony J. Hardy, on loan to HKMM)
The 'Boston' in Hong Kong Harbour (1850/1860) by Chinese artistHong Kong Maritime Museum
Chinese portrait artists routinely depicted ships in Hong Kong's Victoria Harbour with Victoria Peak prominent in the background, give the popularity of paintings in the genre of ship portraits intended for the European and American traders and diplomats. (From the collection of The Peabody Essex Museum)
China Trade Portrait of the American Clipper Ship 'Bunker Hill' Entering Hong Kong Harbour (1805/1850) by Unknown Chinese artistHong Kong Maritime Museum
(From the collection of The Hong Kong Maritime Museum)
III) Speeding up the Trade: Clippers and Steamers
The need for commercial trade with the East stimulated the development of American shipbuilding, Port cities including Salem, Boston, New York, and Philadelphia became shipbuilding centers, where the industries of shipping and ship construction flourished. (Bowl on the right is from the collection of The Winterthur Museum)
Ship's Medicine Chest for the American Vessel 'Caroline' (1840/1860)Hong Kong Maritime Museum
A ship's medicine chest contained all kinds of ointments, lotions, and herbs, as well as dressings and bandages.